Japanese Women in Meiji Period Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Japanese Women in Meiji Period - Essay Example Meiji era represents an age in Japanese history in which one substantial reform was carried out after the other for the progress of the Japanese society. Historians agree that the Meiji era in Japanese history presented a succession of large reforms that were to bring about an improvement in Japanese society. It appears that, although, the Meiji government did try to improve the situation for women in Japan, it could not alter fundamental influences. Thus, despite a movement towards emancipation, greater equality and freedom for women in Japan was to wait until the end of the war. It is clear, that although remnants of the Tokugawa thinking and fundamental influences from old Japan continued into the Meiji period, processes of reform and efforts for change accelerated into the Meiji era. A certain movement towards the greater emancipation of women in the Japanese society of the Meiji era is apparent. However, a pronounced change was only possible after the war when Japan was to surrender. Despite the reforms of the Meiji era, exploitation based on class differences, economic poverty and the inequality of the sexes had continued in Japan. A country in an era that had seen poor peasants selling their daughters to brothels without state intervention could not be an egalitarian society. Thus, a combination of factors related to tradition, economic inequality and class differences had resulted in a certain rebellion amongst some quarters. Although the Meiji government did try to improve the situation, it could not radically alter the inequalities in the society or change the Japanese mentality. Only a major revolution after the war made it possible for further positive change to occur.

Behaviorist and Learning Aspects of Personality Research Paper

Behaviorist and Learning Aspects of Personality - Research Paper Example Extinction is a characteristic of classical conditioning in which the association between the stimulus and learned response is weakened every time the stimulus (triangle) is presented without the associated unconditioned stimulus (loud noise). However, the persistence of learned fear makes it unlikely that it will dissipate over time due to the self-strengthening mechanism described above. To treat learned fear and phobias, extinction must usually be employed in a behavioral therapy paradigm. A process known as systematic desensitization is one of the most successful and commonly used procedures for treating phobias. These intense and irrational fears can take many forms (fear of dogs, snakes, open spaces, cheese) and are quite resistant to natural extinction effects. Along with the self-sustaining theory, phobias may retain their power because people tend to do everything they can to avoid the eliciting stimulus. Extinction cannot occur without exposure to the stimulus. Systematic d esensitization addresses these issues directly. In order to allow extinction to occur, systematic desensitization ensures exposure to the unpaired conditioned stimulus, but does so in a gradual manner to minimize the fear response and eliminate self-sustainment of the phobia. The process is carried out in three parts (Foa, 2010). First, a fear hierarchy is constructed, listing situations related to the phobia in increasing intensity of discomfort. Next, the patient is trained in progressive relaxation (or deep muscle relaxation). This training will allow the patient to induce a state of calm through relaxation of specific muscle groups. Achieving the intended level of calm takes about twenty minutes, after which exposure to the fear-eliciting stimulus can begin. The typical fear hierarchy is made up of 10 to 15 steps, and begins with the least fear-evoking scenario that was established in the first step of systemic desensitization. The patient is instructed to imagine the scene, fol lowed by a pause where the patient is told to use the relaxation technique that was learned in step two. This process is repeated until the patient reports no fear to the scenario. At this point, the next situation in the hierarchy is confronted. The process can continue, usually through multiple sessions, to gradually extinguish the fear in a step-by-step process (McNally, 2007). The approach can be augmented to use humor instead of relaxation in the second step, or by implementing virtual reality technology to assist with realism and precision. Modeling is an alternative approach to treating phobias or fears that are the result of conditioning. In this technique, patients watch a model (usually on video) that is shown interacting with the fear-causing stimulus. The intensity of the scene is increased as the patient observes. According to modeling theory, the likelihood of performing an act increases when a model is observed doing that act. Observing a model gradually influences th e subject to partake in activities that involve their phobias, leading to the extinction of the fear. This approach has several advantages to systematic desensitization. The video aspect is more appropriate for young patients who may not be able to use their imagination properly and requires less instructor time. References Foa, E. B. (2010). Cognitive behavioral therapy of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Dialogues in Clinical Neurosciences, 12(2), 199-207. McNally, R. J.,

Qualitative Research on How We Know the City

Qualitative Research on How We Know the City How do we come to know the city? A city can be defined in a number of ways (Parr, 2007): firstly, in a physical sense of the territory it occupies (Smart, 1974); secondly, by its population size (Newling, 1996; Eeckhout, 2004); or alternatively, by the area dedicated to urban activities (Hall Hay, 1980). All of these interpretations of the meaning of a city have come about from different perceptions of certain cities, which can be researched using various qualitative methods. The qualitative methods that will be discussed in this essay include ethnography, participant observation, interviewing, and focus groups, arguing that a combination of approaches should be taken to reflect the dynamism of cities. Thus, this essay will examine how we come to know a city, taking a particular focus on Newcastle, located in North East England (Miles, 2005). The city is a taken-for-granted concept, frequently used unthinkingly in everyday life (Cloke et al., 2005). We live in an increasingly urbanised world (Hamnett, 2005), with 60% of the global population expected to be housed in cities by 2030 (United Nations (UN), 2016). However, trends of rapid suburbanisation and counter urbanisation have been witnessed since the 1980s, particularly in developed countries such as the UK, in which the city of Newcastle is located (Champion, 1989; Cheshire, 1995). In some cities, this suburbanisation is coupled with inner-city decline, subsequently followed by gentrification and city centre regeneration (Ley, 1996; Peach, 1996; Smith, 1996). Thus, contemporary cities are often characterised by growing inequalities, social segregation and socio-spatial unevenness (Hamnett, 2003; Knox Pinch, 2010). As Geographers, it is important to know how these cities are changing, both in terms of their economic foundation and social structure (Hamnett, 2005). Thi s can be done using qualitative research methods, which examine the ways in which different social groups visualise, feel and know the city, through a multitude of senses, rather than merely sight (Cloke et al., 2005). Therefore, a multiple-method approach is most desirable in order to know that there is more to a city than its physical existence and material construction (Elwood, 2010). Unlike quantitative research methods, qualitative methodologies do not begin with the presumption that there is a pre-existing world that can be known; instead, we see the world socially, as a construct that is constantly changing (Limb Dwyer, 2001). The emphasis, therefore, is to understand the meanings of everyday experiences of the cities (Limb Dwyer, 2001). Ethnographies are one of these such methods, which are characterised by in-depth approaches (Watson Till, 2010), rather than aiming to necessarily produce statistical data. This method involves living and working within a community to understand how people experience their everyday lives, and thus the city (Cook, 2010). Participant observation is a research method heavily emphasised by ethnography. It enables investigation into behaviours and socio-spatial interactions (Cloke et al., 2004) in a more natural setting, therefore producing more reliable responses as participants feel at ease (Western, 1992). Although this method does provide the researcher with a greater depth of understanding as they come to know the participants on a personal level, the research is based upon a very small sample size, which raises questions over to what extent reliable conclusions can be drawn (Limb Dwyer, 2001). Thus, it is important to use other methods, such as interviewing different groups of people, in order to overcome the temptation of generalising. Furthermore, it can be difficult for the researcher to detach themselves and remain an outside observer, as one becomes an intimate member of the group, often over a prolonged period (Chrisman, 1976). Overall, participant observation as a part of ethnographic resea rch produces tacit knowledge of peoples interactions with the city (Stake, 2005), thus aiding in explanation of how we come to know the city. Defined as a conversation with a purpose (Bingham Moore, 1966), semi-structured interviews are one of the most commonly used qualitative methods in social science research, and Human Geography in particular (Crang, 2002; Longhurst, 2003; Kvale, 2007). Despite often mistakenly being criticised for not being representative or scientific, as Valentine (2005) outlines, an interview enables the researcher to understand the mental world of individual people (McCracken, 1988), and how they experience and make sense of their own everyday lives, and thus, how they come to know the city. Interviewers tend to loosely base their questions on an interview schedule, which consists of memory prompts and key topics of discussion (Keats, 2000; Bryman 2004), however, this is often deviated from due to the fluid nature of this methodology (Limb Dwyer, 2001). Time consuming. Cultural and historical knowledge. Another qualitative research method that can be used to investigate how we come to know the city is focus groups. These usually consist of a one-off meeting among five to eight individuals (Limb Dwyer, 2001) where they are often presented with a set of small tasks, such as watching a short video (Goss, 1996). For the researcher, this is an efficient way of gaining an insight into the ways in which people come to know the city (Krueger Casey, 2015), by getting participants to share their personal experiences and argue for different points of view (Barbour Kitzinger, 1999). Rather than interviewing on an individual basis, which can create disproportional power relations (Smith, 2006), the focus group context shows the researcher how certain individuals interact with each other, allowing conversations to develop in arguably a more common social situation (Lunt Livingstone, 1996). However, if the group are not interested in the topic, it can be very difficult for the researcher to ge t the conversation to flow (Agar MacDonald, 1995). Furthermore, it is important to be aware of high dropout rates, and factor this in when planning research using this method (Limb Dwyer, 2001). For this reason, focus groups tend to be used in conjunction with other methodologies, such as interviewing, rather than as a stand-alone approach (Frey Fontana, 1993). Produces practical, context-dependent knowledge (Starman, 2013). Knowledge. Several misconceptions, such as that knowledge is only gained through observation of the world (Sayer, 1992). (Law, 2005). According to Sayer (1992), knowledge is in fact gained through a common language, interaction with other people, and the use of shared resources. Different types of knowledge are appropriate to different functions and contexts (Sayer, 1992). The city looks and feels different, depending on the perspectives of those inhabiting the space (Law, 2005). Dominant way of looking in Geography normalised as white, heterosexual male. (Rose, 1993; Rose, 1997). Excludes viewpoints of people from different races, sexualities, genders, and abilities (Law, 2005). Marginalisation of deaf and blind people, etc. in the city until the turn of the century (see Kitchen et al., 1997). These people are likely to have different experiences of the place. In terms of gender, women can find streets lined with trees intimidating at night as they reduce the visibility of being see n (Valentine, 1989). To others, it feels natural and seems aesthetically pleasing, particularly during the day. The city looks and feels, and is therefore known as, being different, depending on the perspectives of those inhabiting the urban space (Law, 2005). Mixed methods. Historically, Geography has been understood as a visual discipline. However, as Rodaway (1994) highlights, we come to know a city through a variety of senses: smell (Porteous, 1985), sound (Ingham, 1999; Smith, 2000), touch (Podock, 1993), taste. Cosgrove (1998) further recognises this in our association between the visual world and the production of reliable knowledge, with little consideration of other sense. If we rely only on vision as the best way of knowing a city, we, as Human Geographers, consequently only research the remarkable and elite landscapes (rather than the everyday) that are often theoretically only seen from above, rather than below (Law, 2005). If we mimic the position of urban planners in only seeing the city from above, we risk fixing its meaning, and thus denying its complexity (Law, 2005). Thus, it is important to take a multiple-methods approach in order to come to know the city through all of our senses In conclusion, this essay has argued that the city can become best known through a multiple-method qualitative research approach, incorporating a combination of ethnographies, participant observation, interviews and focus groups. It is important not to over-emphasis on visual sight, but also consider other, less-appreciated senses that contribute to our overall knowing of the city.

The Bluest Eye :: essays research papers

The Bluest Eye is a brilliantly written novel revealing the fictional trauma of an eleven-year-old black girl named Pecola Breedlove. This story takes place in the town of Lorain, Ohio during the 1940’s. It is told from the perspective of a young girl named Claudia MacTeer. She and her sister, Frieda, become witness to the terrible plights Pecola is unintentionally put through. Pecola chooses to hide from her disabling life behind her clouded dream of possessing the ever so cherished â€Å"bluest of eyes†. The Breedlove’s constant bickering and ever growing poverty contributes to the emotional downfall of this little girl. Pecola’s misery is obtained through the touch of her father’s hand and the voice of her community’s struggle with racial separation, anger, and ignorance. Her innocence is harshly ripped from her grasp as her father rapes her limp existence. The community’s anger with it’s own insecurities is taken out on thi s poor, ugly, black, non-ideal, young girl. She shields herself from this sorrow behind her obsessive plea for blue eyes. But her eyes do not replace the pain of carrying her fleeing father’s baby. Nor do they protect her from the shady eyes of her neighbors. Though this book discuses negative and disturbing situations, it teaches a very positive lesson. The theme of The Bluest Eye is that of depending on outside influences to become aware of one’s own beauty and to fabricate one’s own self image can be extremely damaging. I feel that Toni Morrison showed this through each of her characters especially the obvious, Pecola Breedlove. One incident, for example, is when Claudia, Frieda, Pecola, and Maureen Peal, a well-loved â€Å"beauty† of Lorain, are walking home from school. As the girls saunter down the street, they begin to bicker. The conversation ends with Maureen stomping away and establishing the fact that she is indeed â€Å"cute†. Claudia then thinks to herself, â€Å"If she was cute--and if anything could be believed, she was--then we were not. And what did that mean? We were lesser. Nicer, brighter, but still lesser. Dolls we could destroy, but we could not destroy the honey voices of parents and aunts, the obedience in the eyes of our peers, the slippery light in the eyes of our teachers when they encouraged the Maureen Peals of the world. What was the secret? What did we lack? Why was it important? And so what?. . . And all the time we knew that Maureen Peal was not the Enemy and not worthy of such intense hatred.

Neo Behaviorism

Consumer behaviourFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaJump to: navigation, search This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2011) Psychology Outline History  ·Subfields Basic types Abnormal  ·Biological Cognitive  ·Comparative Cultural  ·Differential Developmental  ·Evolutionary Experimental  ·Mathematical Personality  ·Positive Quantitative Social Applied psychology Applied behavior analysis Clinical  ·Community Consumer  ·Educational Environmental  ·Forensic  ·HealthIndustrial and organizational Legal  ·Military Occupational health  ·Political Religion  ·School  ·Sport Lists Disciplines  ·Organizations Psychologists  ·Psychotherapies Publications  ·Research methods Theories  ·Timeline  ·Topics Psychology portal v  ·t  ·e Consumer behaviour is the study of individuals, groups, or organizations and the processes they use to select, secure, and dispose of products, services, experiences, or ideas to satisfy needs and the impacts that these processes have on the consumer and society. [1] It blends elements from psychology, sociology, social anthropology and economics.It attempts to understand the decision-making processes of buyers, both individually and in groups. It studies characteristics of individual consumers such as demographics and behavioural variables in an attempt to understand people's wants. It also tries to assess influences on the consumer from groups such as family, friends, reference groups, and society in general. Customer behaviour study is based on consumer buying behaviour, with the customer playing the three distinct roles of user, payer and buyer. Research has shown that consumer behaviour is difficult to predict, even for experts in the field. 2] Relationship marketing is an influential asset for customer behaviour analysis as it has a keen interest i n the re-discovery of the true meaning of marketing through the re-affirmation of the importance of the customer or buyer. A greater importance is also placed on consumer retention, customer relationship management, personalisation, customisation and one-to-one marketing. Social functions can be categorized into social choice and welfare functions. Each method for vote counting is assumed as social function but if Arrow’s possibility theorem is used for a social function, social welfare function is achieved.Some specifications of the social functions are decisiveness, neutrality, anonymity, monotonicity, unanimity, homogeneity and weak and strong Pareto optimality. No social choice function meets these requirements in an ordinal scale simultaneously. The most important characteristic of a social function is identification of the interactive effect of alternatives and creating a logical relation with the ranks. Marketing provides services in order to satisfy customers. With th at in mind, the productive system is considered from its beginning at the production level, to the end of the cycle, the consumer (Kioumarsi et al. 2009). Contents [hide] 1 Black box model 2 Information search 3 Evaluation of alternatives 4 Purchase decision 5 Postpurchase evaluation 6 Other influences 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links [edit] Black box modelENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS BUYER'S BLACK BOX BUYER'S RESPONSE Marketing Stimuli Environmental Stimuli Buyer Characteristics Decision Process Product Price Place Promotion Economic Technological Political Cultural Demographic Natural Attitudes Motivation Perceptions Personality Lifestyle Knowledge Problem recognition Information searchAlternative evaluation Purchase decision Post-purchase behaviour Product choice Brand choice Dealer choice Purchase timing Purchase amount The black box model shows the interaction of stimuli, consumer characteristics, decision process and consumer responses. [3] It can be distin guished between interpersonal stimuli (between people) or intrapersonal stimuli (within people). [4] The black box model is related to the black box theory of behaviourism, where the focus is not set on the processes inside a consumer, but the relation between the stimuli and the response of the consumer.The marketing stimuli are planned and processed by the companies, whereas the environmental stimulus are given by social factors, based on the economical, political and cultural circumstances of a society. The buyers black box contains the buyer characteristics and the decision process, which determines the buyers response. The black box model considers the buyers response as a result of a conscious, rational decision process, in which it is assumed that the buyer has recognized the problem. However, in reality many decisions are not made in awareness of a determined problem by the consumer. edit] Information searchOnce the consumer has recognised a problem, they search for informat ion on products and services that can solve that problem. Belch and Belch (2007) explain that consumers undertake both an internal (memory) and an external search. Sources of information include: Personal sources Commercial sources Public sources Personal experience The relevant internal psychological process that is associated with information search is perception. Perception is defined as â€Å"the process by which an individual receives, selects, organises, and interprets information to create a meaningful picture of the world†.Consumers' tendency to search for information on goods and services makes it possible for researchers to forecast the purchasing plans of consumers using brief descriptions of the products of interest. [5] The selective perception process Stage Description Selective exposure consumers select which promotional messages they will expose themselves to. Selective attention consumers select which promotional messages they will pay attention to. Selective comprehension consumer interpret messages in line with their beliefs, attitudes, motives and experiences.Selective retention consumers remember messages that are more meaningful or important to them. The implications of this process help develop an effective promotional strategy, and select which sources of information are more effective for the brand. [edit] Evaluation of alternativesAt this time the consumer compares the brands and products that are in their evoked set. The evoked set refers to the number of alternatives that are considered by consumers during the problem-solving process. Sometimes also known as consideration , this set tends to be small relative to the total number of options available.How can the marketing organisation increase the likelihood that their brand is part of the consumer's evoked set? Consumers evaluate alternatives in terms of the functional and psychological benefits that they offer. The marketing organisation needs to understand what benefits con sumers are seeking and therefore which attributes are most important in terms of making a decision. It also needs to check other brands of the customer’s consideration set to prepare the right plan for its own brand. [edit] Purchase decisionOnce the alternatives have been evaluated, the consumer is ready to make a purchase decision.Sometimes purchase intention does not result in an actual purchase. The marketing organisation must facilitate the consumer to act on their purchase intention. The organisation can use a variety of techniques to achieve this. The provision of credit or payment terms may encourage purchase, or a sales promotion such as the opportunity to receive a premium or enter a competition may provide an incentive to buy now. The relevant internal psychological process that is associated with purchase decision is integration.Once the integration is achieved, the organisation can influence the purchase decisions much more easily. There are 5 stages of a consumer buying process [6] they are: The problem recognition stage, meaning the identification of something a consumer needs. The search for information, which means you search your knowledge bases or external knowledge sources for information on the product. The possibility of alternative options, meaning whether there is another better or cheaper product available. The choice to purchase the product and then finally the actual purchase of the product. 6] This shows the complete process that a consumer will most likely, whether recognisably or not, go through when they go to buy a product. [edit] Postpurchase evaluationThe EKB (Engel, Kollat, Blackwell) model was further developed by Rice (1993) which suggested there should be a feedback loop, Foxall (2005) further suggests the importance of the post purchase evaluation and that it is key because of its influences on future purchase patterns. [edit] Other influencesConsumer behaviour is influenced by internal conditions such as demographi cs, psychographics (lifestyle), personality, motivation, knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, and feelings.Psychological factors include an individuals motivation, perception, attitude and belief, while personal factors include income level, personality, age, occupation and lifestyle. Behaviour can also be affected by external influences, such as culture, sub-culture, locality, royalty, ethnicity, family, social class, past experience reference groups, lifestyle, market mix factors. [edit] See alsoFood and Brand Lab Consumer socialization Art ; Copy Window shopping Consumer confusion [edit] References1. ^ Kuester, Sabine (2012): MKT 301: Strategic Marketing ; Marketing in Specific Industry Contexts, University of Mannheim, p. 10. 2. ^ J. Scott Armstrong (1991). â€Å"Prediction of Consumer Behavior by Experts and Novices†. Journal of Consumer Research (Journal of Consumer Research Inc. ) 18: 251–256. http://marketing. wharton. upenn. edu/documents/research/Prediction%20of%20 consumer%20behavior. pdf. 3. ^ Sandhusen, Richard L. : Marketing (2000). Cf. S. 218 4. ^ Sandhusen, Richard L. : Marketing (2000). Cf. S. 219 5. ^ J. Scott Armstrong and Terry Overton (1971). â€Å"Brief vs. Comprehensive Descriptions in Measuring Intentions to Purchase†. Journal of Marketing Research 5: 114–117. http://marketing. wharton. upenn. edu/ideas/pdf/armstrong2/brief. df. 6. ^ a b Khosla, Swati (2010). â€Å"Consumer psychology: The essence of Marketing†. International Journal of Educational Administration 2 (2): 220-220. http://web-l4. ebscohost. com. ezproxy-f. deakin. edu. au/ehost/detail? vid=5;hid=106;sid=4657a35a-29b0-4753-b833-46a39c374718%40sessionmgr113;bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=ehh;AN=60641974. Retrieved 2012-05-16. [edit] Further readingBlackwell, Miniard and Engel (2006). Consumer Behaviour (10th Ed. ). Thomson Learning. Deaton, Angus; Muellbauer, John, Economics and consumer behavior, Cambridge ; New York : Cambridge University Press, 1980.ISBN 0-521-22850-6 Foxall, G. (2005. ) Understanding Consumer Choice. Baingstoke. Palgrave Macmillian. Howard, J. , Sheth, J. N. (1968), Theory of Buyer Behavior, J. Wiley ; Sons, New York, NY. Kardes, Frank R. ; Cronley, Maria L. ; Cline, Thomas W. , Consumer Behavior, Mason, OH : South-Western, Cengage Learning, 2011. ISBN 978-0-538-74540-6 Laermer, Richard; Simmons, Mark, Punk Marketing, New York : Harper Collins, 2007. ISBN 978-0-06-115110-1 (Review of the book by Marilyn Scrizzi, in Journal of Consumer Marketing 24(7), 2007) Loudon, D. L. 1988), Consumer Behavior: Concepts and Applications, McGraw Hill, London. McNair, B. (1958), Retail Development, Harper ; Row, New York, NY. Packard, Vance, The Hidden Persuaders, New York, D. McKay Co. , 1957. Schiffman, L. G. (1993), Consumer Behavior, Prentice Hall International, London. Schwartz, Barry (2004), The Paradox of Choice: Why More Is Less, Ecco, New York. Shell, Ellen Ruppel, Cheap: The High Cost of Discount Culture , New York : Penguin Press, 2009. ISBN 978-1-59420-215-5 Solomon, M. R. (1994), Consumer Behavior, Allyn ; Bacon, London. edit] External linksThe Society for Consumer Psychology [hide]v  ·t  ·eConsumer behaviour Concepts Consumption (economics)  ·Consumer spending  ·Autonomous consumption  ·Induced consumption  ·Consumer debt  ·Consumer economy  ·Consumer culture theory Research types Consumer behaviour  ·Consumer sovereignty  ·Marketing research  ·Consumer neuroscience  ·Consumer choice  ·Consumer product  ·Consumer economics  ·Consumer basket  ·Consumption function Consumer attributes Consumer confusion  ·Consumer's risk  ·Consumer confidence  ·Consumer socialization  ·Consumer ethnocentrism  ·Cultural consumer  ·Homo economicusProcesses Consumer cooperative  ·Consumer-to-business  ·Factory-to-consumer  ·Consumer service  ·Consumerization Retrieved from â€Å"http://en. wikipedia. org/w/index. php? title=Consumer_behaviour&oldid =532422664† Categories: Consumer behaviourMarketing analyticsHidden categories: Articles needing additional references from April 2011All articles needing additional referencesNavigation menuPersonal tools Create accountLog inNamespaces ArticleTalkVariantsViews ReadEditView historyActions Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia InteractionHelp ï » ¿Neo Behaviorism Neo Behaviourism is a branch of psychology that draws its principles from behaviourism. Neo Behaviourism is a more flexible concept and seeks to analyze and understand phenomena that cannot be measured or observed such as stress, love, trust, empathy or personality. â€Å"Neobehaviorism departs from classic behaviorism in that while the latter is concerned exclusively with observable behaviors, the former acknowledges the importance of also understanding elements that are internal to the individual. Thus, whereas classical behaviorism is only concerned with the environment as a determinant of behavior, neobehaviorism stresses the interaction of the individual and environment.†Neo Behaviorism: Tolman and BanduraNeo Behaviorism – Transitional group, bridging the gap between behaviorism and cognitive theories of learning.Tolman’s Purposive BehaviorismPurposive Behaviorism:it is also been referred to as Sign Learning Theory and is often unite between behaviorism and cognitive theory. Tolman believed that learning is a cognitive process. Learning involves forming beliefs and obtaining knowledge about the environment and then revealing that knowledge through purposeful and goal directed behavior.Tolman’s Key ConceptLearning is always purposive and goal- directedCognitive MapLatent LearningThe concept of interesting variableReinforcement not essential for learningALBERT BANDURA’S SOCIAL LEARNING THEORYSocial Learning Theory focuses on the learning that occurs within a social context. People learn from one another such as observational learning, imitation and modeling.GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY1. Learn by observing. 2. Learning can occur through observation alone, without a change in behavior. 3. Cognition plays a role in learning. 4. Transition between behaviorism and cognitive learning theory.ENVIRONMENT REINFORCES MODELINGIn several Possible ways:By the model.By the third person.By the imitated behavior itself pro duce satisfying.By the vicarious reinforcement.Contemporary Social Learning Perspective of Reinforcement and PunishmentContemporary Theory purposes that reinforcement and punishment have indirect effects on learning.Reinforcement and Punishment influence the result of individuals’ behavior that has been learned.The expectation of reinforcement influences cognitive processes.Cognitive Factors in Social Learning TheoryLearning Without PerformanceCognitive Processing DuringExpectationsReciprocal causationModelingConditions necessary for effective modeling to occurAttention.Retention.Motor reproduction.Motivation.

Personal Values in the Work Place

The ten values (both work and personal) that I have chosen are adventure, affection (love and caring), creativity, excitement, friendships, having a family, quality relationships, religion, status, and wealth. Adventure is a component of a valued way of life for me because I feel most alive when I’m taking risks. Bold and risky undertakings are fun. Taking chances and daring yourself to push your limits are good for the soul. Creativity is the ability to transcend traditional ideas to create meaningful new ideas! It’s important to me to feel inspired. In the work place, if you use your imagination, you could solve problems that were impossible to solve before. Having a family is a personal value that most people strive for. Families are supportive and will help me in my career. My elder relatives are wise and would advise me in any career move and my younger siblings could cheer for me on the sidelines. Religion does not belong in the work place. However when I spend time in prayer I feel inner peace, which in turn effects my work overall. Religion is a form of mediation for me. Spiritual-mindedness in my personal lives helps me in the work place. Wealth is something from the workplace that will greatly effect my personal life. With a plentiful amount of wealth, my family can feel secure and will be able to focus on other things in life. I don’t want lack of money to prohibit anything in my life.

R-rated movies essays

R-rated movies essays R-Rated Movies Are Not Meant For the General Public The government has decided that R-rated movies are not appropriate for viewing by people under the age of 17. Cable television is viewed by a majority of the entire population. With such a diverse audience of cable television viewers, uncut R-rated movies should not be shown on cable, because of the probability of an R-rated movie being viewed by an inappropriate audience. R-rated movies often contain foul language, nudity, and excessive violence. Components of R-rated movies are at the center of controversial disputes such as pornography on the internet, and violence on television and in video games, and cable providers have been pushing the issue of what they can show on television for years. As of right now, edited R-rated movies are fair game on television, because the foul language, nudity, and some of the violence have been cut out. This eliminates some of the offensiveness, but it doesnt compensate for the adult themes and innuendos. As it is, much of society objects to what is currently being shown on television, and would be outraged if uncut R-rated movies were permitted. Ratings for movies were made to determine which movies are appropriate for which audiences. A movie given the rating of R has been determined to be inappropriate for audiences under the age of 17. Movie rental stores and theatres refuse to sell these movies to individuals under the age of 17. Not only have R-rated movies been deemed inappropriate for those under 17 years old, many adults have found these movies to be so offensive, that they refuse to watch them. For social, religious, or moral reasons, many adults have chosen not to watch R-rated movies, and to prohibit their children from watching them. Permitting cable providers to show uncut R-rated movies on their basic programming would undermine the authority and beliefs of these people. Realistically, cable television ...

Soap Operas essays

Soap Operas essays The soap opera genre originated from American radio in the 1930s, and owes its name to the sponsorship of the programs by large soap powder companies. They were targeted at women, particularly housewives, and designed to entertain, without distracting them from there daily chores while their husband was out working. They were formulated to be easy listening and numerous Storylines woven into one episode. Basically unlike radio plays or melodramas, there were no ending points only ending storylines. Part of this assignment is to review modern day Soap operas, which have now evolved to Television and to examine the ideolology and certain traditions behind them. I included a recording of Eastenders, which was taken from UK Gold. It was interesting to breakdown the Scene and analyze the technical details as well as the subtext of the program. The title sequence, is very simple, it began in the river Thames, for about half a second the screen is completely green, then very quickly, accompanied by the familiar theme, the camera zoomed out, whilst rotating clockwise to revel a colour map of London ( Interestingly not just of the East end of London). The River Thames remaining central and the main focal point within the golden triangle of the frame. The primary meaning of the map is nothing more than a map of London, a nice pictorial, aerial view. The semiotic meaning however is considerably different, It suggest Entertainment, Scandal, maybe time to stop doing what you are doing and relax. Even Before the title, which is indecently one word, Eastenders appears, the visual image has captured peoples attention, The Distinctive theme tune has in its own right become an audible code, to Provoke the same response from the viewer, even if they are at that point not in the same room as the television. Its Become an alarm bell to tell them that the program has begun. The wor...

What Is Source Code in Computer Programming

What Is Source Code in Computer Programming Source  code is the list of human-readable instructions that a programmer writes- often in a word processing program- when he is developing a program. The source code is run through a  compiler  to turn it into machine code, also called object code, that a computer can understand and execute. Object code consists primarily of 1s and 0s, so it isnt human-readable.   Source Code Example Source code and object code are the before and after states of a computer program that is compiled. Programming languages that compile their code include C, C, Delphi, Swift, Fortran, Haskell, Pascal and many others. Here is an example of C  language source code: /* Hello World program */#includestdio.hmain(){printf(Hello World)} You dont have to be a computer programmer to tell that this code has something to do with printing Hello World. Of course, most source code is much more complex than this example. It is not unusual for software programs to have millions of lines of code. Windows 10 operating system is reported to have about 50 million lines of code. Source Code Licensing Source code can be either proprietary or open. Many companies closely guard their source code. Users can use the compiled code, but they cannot see or modify it. Microsoft Office is an example of proprietary source code. Other companies post their code on the internet where it is free to anyone to download. Apache OpenOffice is an example of open source software code. Interpreted Program Languages Code Some programming languages such as JavaScript are not compiled into machine code but are  interpreted  instead. In these cases, the distinction between source code and object code does not apply because there is only one code. That single code is the source code, and it can be read and copied. In some cases, developers of this code may intentionally encrypt it to prevent viewing. Programming languages that are interpreted include Python, Java, Ruby, Perl, PHP, Postscript, VBScript and many others.

Immigration, Nationality and Asylum Law ( British Law) Essay

Immigration, Nationality and Asylum Law ( British Law) - Essay Example Additionally, the population of Britain is rising for the first time because the number of those who stay minus those who leave is positive and the trend is going to continue. Green claims that Britain already has "a severe congestion" (1). Because the density of population is higher than in India and in some places out measures the Netherlands. Moreover, the system of immigration is hugger-mugger by letting in all the kinsfolk and "quadruple [icating] the number of works permits" (Green 2). According to him migration has no limits and "the character of our society, and especially our cities, is being radically alerted." (2). Green also mentions that immigrants have been seeking to influence Britain's political parties; consequently Government should use severe policies to curb migration. Although Green is right worrying about the loss of national identity he overlooks very important facts as to why the migration is useful to Britain. The migration has always existed and will exist and "in both directions is natural and welcome" (Green 1). The fear to lose national identity is somewhat worth considering, but it depends on citizens themselves if they want to uphold the traditional country's values. Great Britain was the only country, which didn't impose any restrictions for the new EU members and it now is clearly seen that it has been the opportune policy. However, in this case the world-wide migration will not be considered because migration between European Union countries is more appealing to us as the competent citizens. One of the most appreciable pluses of immigration is that "the greater mobility of labour which comes with EU enlargement is beneficial to [Britain's] economy" (Clark 1). Migrants are not only useful for country's economy but also better, cheaper and harder- working. They come here to feel the free-market economy and are not spoiled as British, "who treat their workplace more as a social club" (Clark 1). Moreover, it is useful because the labour force from the new EU countries tend to stop the gap of British labour market. According to Tony McNulty, the Immigration minister: "Workers are contributing to our economy, paying tax and national insurance and filling key jobs in areas where there are gaps. We estimate registered workers contributed approximately Pounds 500 million to the UK economy between May 2004 and March 2005." Consequently, Britain will economically benefit; however the British workers may lose their jobs too. In addition to that, creating boundaries for the new EU co untries is disadvantageous and irrational because it "prolong[s] economic stagnation" (Rossant 1). Great Britain is the only one country which can improve the economic growth of the region, regenerate aged and spoiled workers and ensure the right of the promised free mobility. Closing door policy is also irrational because "continental economics can't respond flexibly to macroeconomics shifts" (Rossant 1). It means that in nowadays world we can't rely only on our countries' economy and the economy should be integrated world-wide. To sum it up, Green is right that immigration worries local people but they should understand the fact that it is useful for the economy and that's why they are able to live better. Green also asserts

Operations Strategy Evaluation Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Operations Strategy Evaluation - Research Paper Example Operational process of leading IT firms includes three different functions. Firstly, it has been observed that the operational managers are concerned to accomplish organizational goals. Secondly, managers focus a lot towards maintaining higher productivity along with high quality (Bratton and Gold, 2000). Finally, operational role of firms includes service provisions for their customers. Apple Inc, IBM, and Samsung are the leading computer hardware, computer software, consumer electronics and digital distributors dealing with a great amount of product and service line. All the firms are dealing internationally and therefore it is imperative for the managers of the respective firms to set unique operational techniques and performance to achieve more success and competency in the global market. Conventional operational model signifies three phases which are input, process, and output. Resources like materials, information and customers are transformed by the management to meet the devi ation of macro environmental factors. Figure 1 provides the conceptual operational systems that are adopted by the leading multinational corporations (Dolk, 2000). Apple Inc, Samsung, and IBM follow the general model and the resources like facilities and staffs are continuously developed as per changing criteria of operational management. Apple Inc and Samsung consistently emphasize on new and innovative designs, improvement of the existing service lines, and planning and control for optimal use of resources.

PERSONAL BIOGRAPHY Statement Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

BIOGRAPHY - Personal Statement Example Indeed, my companions regularly irritated me amid my pre-adult years. I had numerous individuals who put resources into me, and I exceeded expectations at the greater part of my numerous and shifted diversions. I did well in school, frequently knowing how to do complex math issues before the idea had even been acquainted with our class. Thinking back, I am certain I was very egotistical, albeit I did not understand it at the time. Later in 2013, I rejoined with my parents in the United States where I joined tenth grade. In America, I started to feel burnt out on the weight put on me by my family and their elevated requirements. I systematically proceeded with my additional curricular exercises, including music and workmanship lessons, and alongside my studies. I graduated as the best student in my class, and I was satisfied because I made my parents to be proud. All my grades in the United States were amazing because I joined advanced classes. However, after three semesters, I chose to join school after I kept on exceeding expectations in training much the same as my nation of origin. I need to be a little fish in an enormous lake for a change. The wise quotes from Kiyoska (2014) give me power to move on, for the winner are always prepared for challenges. In College, I would like to proceed with the same soul of greatness to be an effective individual later

Week 5 dq Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Week 5 dq - Assignment Example   policy  management  direct  system  and the significant roles of  rational  capital  or knowledge of  administration  in organizational  commerce  process  are some of the measures used in strategic control  process.  Balanced scorecard  is used  to align company behaviors to the vision and  policy  of the company, improve internal and  peripheral  communications, and  examine  organization  activities against planned targets (Nooreklit, 2000). The change of  policy  into its  application  is beginning by comprehending the obstacles or difficulties in the process of policy execution. This  context  illustrates how  strategy  formulation is  vital  in every company. Strategic management deals with the  essential  planned  direction  of the  business  in terms of its  association  with its environment. It  is centered  on the company as a whole and could  stress  the  lasting  procedures like the return on savings and alterations in shareholder significance. Policy  control  metrics may be classified as regarding either  peripheral  value or  internal  competence. Flexibility overlies these classifications. It links to  effectiveness  and  competence  (Nooreklit, 2000). Hence, a company must be peripherally flexible in reacting to altering  consumer  needs and internally supple in reordering its organizational arrangements and retraining workers. Internal  competence  measures include cycle time, production and waste. Policy controls may be used as a method of explaining what excellent performance is, making  clear  the trade-offs connecting profit and savings and introducing  persona l  stretch goals. The reason why measures used in planned controlled control  procedure  is  necessary  is because it gives the company a sense of direction. Although objectives, functional tactics, and action  item  are included  in  several  implementation plans, a number of organizations have a  difficult  time reflecting the plans they  create. This is because some organizations

Analysis of the Article Written by Deepak Lal for the Business Research Paper

Analysis of the Article Written by Deepak Lal for the Business Standard Regarding Global Financial Crisis - Research Paper Example The savings are recycled through the international banking system on a regular basis to fuel demand. Second, cheap credit given by banks without checking the creditworthiness of the borrowers. Thirdly, the rise in the commodity prices also contributed a lot to the financial crisis and Lastly, according to him is the bailout sought by some irresponsible banks from the taxpayers telling them otherwise it will lead to the complete wiping of the financial institution. He says that the 1980 crisis was resolved when the banks hugely wrote off their Third World debt, sacked their reckless managers and shareholders also suffered large losses. But, eventually, it all came under control without threatening the world economy on a large scale. Whereas, in the current times the global financial system is sinking and bailouts are no longer an exception but have become a routine affair. The difference in outcome is because that even in the 1970s surplus money was recycled but it was done by the off -shore branches of the Parent Bank, bringing no risk to the Western Banking system, even if there was a default. Whereas, the current crisis stems from UK's financial liberalisation in the 1980s, and the Clinton era abolition of the Glass-Steagall Act, which had kept a firewall between the commercial and investment banking parts of the financial system since the 1930s. In these times no difference was kept between the Payments/deposit system of the banks and the investment banking.  

What you learned in speech course Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

What you learned in speech course - Essay Example Previously I was very shy about talking out in public and standing up in front of a crowd. However, this speech course has helped me tremendously in boosting up my confidence level. Now not only am I able to present myself much more properly but I believe I am even more calm and composed as I deliver speeches. Before all this started I recall how much I used to shiver with the mere thought of getting on the stage to deliver a speech. But as I moved on with this course I discovered that having speaking related anxiety is as completely natural as anything else. I discovered that I was not the only person in the room who felt he couldn’t deliver, and there were a lot of other similar souls. There is a lot that I have learned from this speech course and time would run out if I start mentioning everything here. I believe this course has helped me a great deal in overcoming my fears to start off with. I always thought presenting to a crowd is a great deal and not everyone’s c apable of it. However, the day I stepped onto the podium my thinking changed and I left all my fears behind. It must be mentioned here that my instructor helped me a great deal with my speech and pointed out mistakes where I was wrong. This course, I believe has taught me to look inside my self and share my feelings with the audience. I learned that while delivering a speech you have to adjust your tone and message according to the audience’s feedback. I remember how I was rushing through my speech on automotive engines until I looked into the eyes of a couple of students in the audience. Their eyes zoomed me in like I was saying something alien to them. It was then that I realized that there’s something wrong with my presentation and adjusted I slowed down. This speech course this helped me figure out that speech delivery is all about adjustment to your audience’s feedback. It taught me you have to step into your audience’s shoes and figure out if you wo uld have understood the same had you been in their place. This speech course has also helped me a great deal in being able to speak clearly yet concisely and confidently. It made me realize the importance of proper speech delivery and the impact it can make on the life millions of people around you. I realized that developing upon your speech is not only essential in getting a good grade in this course but it helps you a lot in speaking out in tons of other important situations as well. I also learned that proper speech and presentations do not only help us to present ourselves effectively in front of others but help us get control of and master our lives. I also realized that it is our speech that makes us unique from thousands of people around the world. They say everyone’s equal and that fact is true but having command over proper speech is what distinguishes a learned person from an ill literate one and makes you stand out in front of a crowd. I would like to sum it all u p by saying this speech course has ideally changed the course of my life and how I used to see things. Now I believe if you can communicate properly and make yourself heard then you can overcome any obstacle in

Analysis of the Article Written by Deepak Lal for the Business Research Paper

Analysis of the Article Written by Deepak Lal for the Business Standard Regarding Global Financial Crisis - Research Paper Example The savings are recycled through the international banking system on a regular basis to fuel demand. Second, cheap credit given by banks without checking the creditworthiness of the borrowers. Thirdly, the rise in the commodity prices also contributed a lot to the financial crisis and Lastly, according to him is the bailout sought by some irresponsible banks from the taxpayers telling them otherwise it will lead to the complete wiping of the financial institution. He says that the 1980 crisis was resolved when the banks hugely wrote off their Third World debt, sacked their reckless managers and shareholders also suffered large losses. But, eventually, it all came under control without threatening the world economy on a large scale. Whereas, in the current times the global financial system is sinking and bailouts are no longer an exception but have become a routine affair. The difference in outcome is because that even in the 1970s surplus money was recycled but it was done by the off -shore branches of the Parent Bank, bringing no risk to the Western Banking system, even if there was a default. Whereas, the current crisis stems from UK's financial liberalisation in the 1980s, and the Clinton era abolition of the Glass-Steagall Act, which had kept a firewall between the commercial and investment banking parts of the financial system since the 1930s. In these times no difference was kept between the Payments/deposit system of the banks and the investment banking.  

Theories of Mass Media and Its Social Impacts Essay Example for Free

Theories of Mass Media and Its Social Impacts Essay Since the invention of technologies such as the telegraph, radio and eventually television, which enabled communications â€Å"produced at a single source [to be] transmitted to an infinitely large audience† (Fearing, F. 1954), the social impacts of communications via mass media have been a subject of intense research by political and social scientists. This literature review intends to examine the major theories and perspectives on mass media with regard to its impact on society, which existed throughout the 1950’s and 70’s. Special attention will be given to the subjects of human social development, distribution of power, and human knowledge. Human social development has, without doubt, transformed since the introduction of mass media technologies. Before mass transmission capabilities were available, humans were very rarely exposed to anything other than the culture of their immediate surroundings. A widely supported view held, as to how communities learn a culture, is through a process of symbolic interaction (Blumer, H. 1969) where humans learn via the sharing of symbols. Fearing (1954) refers to this process as the sharing of â€Å"daydreams†, which are the literary or dramatic manifestations of a community’s symbols and culture. Every ‘daydream’ contains the symbols of the culture that produced it, whether it be a play or story. By passing on and sharing these ‘daydreams’, a community are able to share in the same culture, as they create familiar frameworks with which to reference their social lives. As Gerbner (1967) points out, before mass media, human interaction was almost entirely interpersonal, in relative isolation, meaning human experience and knowledge was limited to their immediate community environment, with information being passed down from person to person. The influence of the mass media begins to become apparent as Fearing (1952) points out the fact that humans, thanks to mass media, were for the first time able to broaden their sources of symbolic interaction, learning the values and symbols of a culture outside of their own localised  sphere of experience. Gerbner later echoed this sentiment when stating that since the industrial revolution, an â€Å"almost simultaneous introduction of information, ideas, images and products† on a global level has taken place. He goes on to claim that this point signalled the turning point with regard to how people became â€Å"humanised†. No longer was acculturation limited geographically. Quite quickly, due to the wide transmission of symbols, beliefs and attitudes, it became possible for regional and even national populations to share the same mental frameworks for perceiving the world around them. A feat that would have been impossible without the means of mass, simultaneous comm unication, made feasible by the mass media. Another contested subject with regards to the potential power of mass media was that that its capabilities place â€Å"a powerful instrument in the hands of a small number of persons† (Fearing, 1954). The ability now existed for a small influential group to communicate their message to a vast number of receivers. With this came the ability to set public agenda, influence social policy and affect the thoughts and behaviours of receivers (Gerbner 1967). There are many incidences for example where radio broadcasts have had a huge influence on the behaviour of its listeners, as documented extensively by Fearing (1954), who incidentally goes on to play down these successes as isolated events in which many variables came together with unintentional effectiveness. Unsurprisingly, governments developed great interest in the potential of the mass media and political scientists were responsible for many advances in the field. The propaganda campaigns propagated during the First, and especially Second World War, are undeniable examples of mass media’s potential for control over a population. However, the idea that media had a one way ‘hypodermic needle’ effect on receivers was beginning to fall from popular view, with a two way communication process being adopted instead. This two way process took into account that an audience doesn’t necessarily simply absorb the information around them, but perceive and interpret it, ultimately selecting whether it’s information they want to absorb. In contrast to the increased power of government, insights provided by Gerbner (1967) document the increased power of ordinary citizens to effectively take part in democracy, by offering and promoting alternatives to policies. The ability to publish and distribute private knowledge he says  transforms the private perspectives of few into broad public perspectives – thus creating a public, which in itself is a form of potential power if communication is maintained. We can conclude from this that mass media has enabled those who would not normally be able to do so, to voice their opinions and perspectives with a broader audience. Those who wield these mass communication capabilities certainly have far more potential power than before. With increased broadcasting of information, the manner and rate at which humans learn has also been irreversibly influenced. The relatively vast amounts of knowledge available via print and broadcast media during this time meant people were exposed to a greater amount of information. People were no longer restricted to the information and experiences of their own communities, but had access to foreign experiences and knowledge on a national and international level. In a general sense this has arguably meant that people, as a result, have become relatively more intelligent. As with most opportunities however, some people are able to take more advantage of them than others, whether it be because they are better equipped or more motivated to do so. P. J. Tichenor, G.A. Donohue and C.N. Olien’s (1970) research documented what they referred to as a â€Å"widening knowledge gap†, especially with regards to more â€Å"general appeal† knowledge areas such as public affai rs and science. Those of a higher socioeconomic status acquire information faster than lower class segments, leading to ever increasing gaps between progressive and â€Å"stagnant† groups (Tichenor, P.J, et al. 1970). Robinson (as cited in Tichenor, P.J. et al 1970) contends that those less informed will â€Å"remain so unless acted upon by an outside force, while those already informed stay in motion†. This leads to the conclusion that while the proliferation of information increases, the knowledge gap can and will only increase, unless measures are taken to effectively inform those of lower socioeconomic classes. A solution to this knowledge gap is offered by Tichenor et al. (1970) when they profess that a â€Å"knowledge gap implies a communication gap.† With the introduction of more easily accessible outlets of information this knowledge gap could potentially be decreased, despite the ever-increasing amounts of information available. Their article ends on an optimistic note as to the role television could play in the future, a  medium much easily accessible to lower socioeconomic classes. Reference List Blumer, Herbert (1969). Symbolic Interactionism: Perspective and Method. Berkeley: University of California Press. Fearing F. (1954). Social impact of the mass media of communications, in, N.B. Henry (Ed.) Mass media and education: The fifty-third yearbook of the national society for the study of education part II, Chicago, University of Chicago. Gerbner, G. (1967). Mass media and human communication theory, in, F.E. X. Dance (Ed.) Human communication theory: Original essays, (pp.40-60.) New York, Holt, Rinehart, Winston. Tichenor, P.J., Donohue, G.A. Olien, C.N. (1970). Mass media flow and differential growth in knowledge, Public Opinion Quarterly, 34, 159-170.

Pathophysiology of Huntington Disease

Pathophysiology of Huntington Disease George Huntington first described Huntington Disease in 1872 as coming on gradually but surely, increasing by degrees, and often occupying years in its development until the hapless sufferer is but a quivering wreck of his former self (Visser, 2010). Huntington disease is an inherited genetic disorder, which causes the progressive degeneration of selected nerve cells in the brain. This degeneration of nerve cells results in impairment of both mental capability and physical control which results in death (Visser, 2010). This essay will look at the pathophysiology of Huntington disease in relation to the possible signs and symptoms. While also identifying the risk factors and examining the relevant tests available with regards to screening, diagnosing and monitoring treatment within New Zealand. It will then further explore the treatment options available in New Zealand and treatment developments worldwide. Pathophysiology of Huntington disease in relation to signs and symptoms Huntington disease is caused by a genetic fault in a small section located on chromosome 4, which encodes a protein called Huntington (Porth, 2011). However, the function of the Huntington protein is still unknown, yet this protein appears to be important to neurons in the brain (Visser, 2010). This genetic fault results in a segment of DNA, known as a CAG trinucleotide repeat, this segment of DNA is made up of a series of DNA building blocks cytosine, adenine and guanine that appear multiple times in a row (Visser, 2010). The normal copy of this gene contains 6 to 35 copies of the trinucleotide repeat, compared to the faulty gene which contains 40 to 120 copies of the trinucleotide repeat resulting in this gene producing an expansion of Huntington’s gene (Porth, 2011). The larger number of trinucleotide repeats is generally associated with an earlier onset of Huntington’s’ disease. This is shown as adults with Huntington’s disease generally have 40-50 tri nucleotide repeats where people with the juvenile form of this disorder tend to have more than 50 trinucleotide repeats (Visser, 2010). Also, Visser (2010) suggests that due to the elongation of the CAG trinucleotide segment, the segment gains a toxic function that disrupts the normal function of neurons and eventually leads to the death of neurons. Cells are known as building blocks of life that use energy to carry out biological functions, while also producing oxidants that can potentially damage themselves; Yet, these cells can make such chemicals harmless (Visser, 2010). Current studies suggests that the protein Huntington somehow prevents the brain cells from protecting themselves against the toxic chemicals which results in Huntington’s disease causing the localized death of brain and spinal cord cells (Porth, 2011). Basal ganglia are the first neurons to be affected by Huntington disease; these neurons are associated with a variety of functions that modulate motor movements, emotions, cognitive and learning abilities (Porth, 2011). Therefore the deteriation of basal ganglia results in many symptoms which commonly occur around 35 and 55 years of age, however these symptoms will progressively get worse which results in the individual passing away in around 10-20 years (Porth, 2011). There are early signs and symptoms of Huntington disease which include uncontrolled muscular movements, memory problems and mood changes (Visser, 2010). Yet, these symptoms quickly develop into serious motor impairment conditions such as eye movement disorders, spasticity, dysphagia, dysarthria, myoclonus, and the main impairment chorea which involves rapid, jerking movements that the individual has no control over (Porth, 2011). As Huntington disease develops it results in a cognitive decline, mental slowing which is the inability to remember people and to make decisions for oneself (Porth, 2011). This can all eventually lead to dementia. There are many factors that influence behavioural symptoms which include stress about the disease, family relationships, and as the pathways through the basal ganglia become disconnected which results in a loss of frontal lobe functions (Visser, 2010). The major behavioural symptom is depression with 30% of individuals with Huntington disease exper iencing major depressive or dysthymic disorders and 6% resulting in suicide (Porth, 2011). Other behavioural symptoms such as personality changes results in the individual appearing to have no interest in life or the individual having increased anger and irritability which further links to impulsive actions and violence, these actions can cause stress in relationships between family members (Visser, 2010). Risk Factors of Huntington disease Everyone receives two copies of each gene which are singularly known as alleles, one from each parent, that are present in all cells of the body (Lemiere, 2004). Therefore most individuals are born with two normal copies of each allele (Lemiere, 2004). However in the case of hereditary disorders specifically Huntington’s disease, an individual is born with one normal gene and a gene defect which is called a mutation (Lemiere, 2004). Huntington disease has an autosomal dominant inheritance pattern which means that a child of a parent who carries the mutation has a 50% chance of inheriting the mutation (Frank, 2014). If the child inherits the mutation the child will develop Huntington’s disease some point in the individual’s life, and can also pass it on to their children. But if the individual does not inherit the mutation then they cannot pass it on to their children (Frank, 2014). Yet, there are also rare cases where individuals develop Huntington’s disea se, without a family history of the condition (Visser, 2010). This generally happens because of a genetic mutation during the father’s sperm development (Visser, 2010). However, there is a process where fertilized embryos can be tested for Huntington’s disease prior to the embryos being implanted within a mother’s womb called pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (Christian, 2007). This technique allows the parent that carries the Huntington’s disease to avoid passing the genetic condition to their children (Christian, 2007). Pre-implantation genetic diagnosis is completed through in-vitro fertilization (IVF) where the mother’s egg is fertilized with the father’s sperm outside the body (Christian, 2007). The eggs then develop into embryos, after three days of being cultured in the laboratory the technique of embryo biopsy is performed, this test checks the embryo for the Huntington’s disease and therefore all the embryos are then implanted back into the mother (Christian, 2007). New Zealand has been ethically approved for pre-implantation genetic diagnosis however this is only under special circumstances (Chris tian, 2007). The government only funds pre-implantation genetic diagnosis for 40 couples a year with one single attempt at pregnancy; this funding includes all serious genetic conditions (Christian, 2007). Relevant diagnostic, screening and monitoring tests in New Zealand Genetic tests are an example of a diagnostic as it is a procedure performed that establishes if an individual has the presence or absence of Huntington’s disease (Lyon, 2013). Individuals that have symptomatic symptoms of Huntington’s disease may be recommended by health care professionals to undertake a genetic test for the faulty Huntington gene (Visser, 2010). However, there is also predictive DNA testing which is for asymptomatic individuals with a 50% chance of developing Huntington’s disease, these individuals are tested to see if they will be affected or not by the faulty gene in adulthood (Visser, 2010). Both of these genetic tests are accomplished in the same way and can be done in Auckland laboratory (Lyon, 2013). Genetic testing is done by DNA being extracted from the individual’s blood sample, and then the DNA being purified (Lyon, 2013). A technique called polymerase chain reaction is then implicated to locate the two Huntington genes, once fo und millions of exact copies are made for further analysis (Lyon, 2013). This further analysing is when the DNA is sorted by size to determine the number of CAG repeats in each gene. The three outcomes to the test are based on the CAG repeats (Lyon, 2013). If an individual receives a negative test it means the CAG repeat size is 30 or less and therefore the individual is not at risk of developing Huntingtons disease, but if an individual receives a positive test it means the CAG repeat size is 40 or more and the individual will develop Huntington’s disease generally in adulthood (Lyon, 2013). However if an individual receives uninformative it mean the CAG repeat is in the immediate range between 31-39 and is unclear if the individual will develop Huntington’s disease (Lyon, 2013). Other tests available are known as screening this is where a series of tests are used to predict the presence of disease in individuals at risk (Lemiere, 2004). These tests include neurological examinations, along with structural and functional imaging. Neurological examinations are performed by a neurologist, which intensively interviews an individual to obtain the medical history and rule out other possible medical conditions (Lemiere, 2004). Some key aspects neurologists use to identify Huntington’s disease include taking a family history as Huntington disease is an inherited disorder and taking note of reflexes, muscle strength and eye movements as some of the earliest manifestations of the disease are â€Å"subtle chorea, eye movement and fine motor abnormalities† (Lemiere, 2004). However, Lemiere (2004) suggests that the Huntington gene defect may influence brain function and behaviour during asymptomatic years, this research has been conducted using presymptomati c individuals who have a positive gene defect. These individuals had a volume reduction of â€Å"30.9% for the caudate, 29.3% for the globus pallidus and 25.7% for the putamen† (Lemiere, 2004) compared to individuals with a negative gene defect from offspring of Huntington disease patients (Lemiere, 2004). This research shows that the decline of basal ganglia occurs gradually before the onset of Huntington disease symptoms (Lemiere, 2004). Therefore healthcare professionals can use MRI and CT scans of the brain to help determine if patients have Huntington’s disease (Lemiere, 2004). The monitoring of treatment is extremely important in Huntington’s disease and dependently relies on the motor, behavioural and cognitive aspects of the individual (Frank, 2014). After the onset of Huntington disease the individuals’ functional abilities gradually worsen over time due to the Huntington gene mutation that causes a localized death of neurons which helped to regulate the motor movements, emotional and cognitive abilities (Frank, 2014). The loss of these abilities requires the individual to seek help for all activities of daily care, yet later in the disease the individual will be confined to a bed with the inability to speak (Frank, 2014). This gradual decline of the individuals’ condition makes it important for health care professional to monitor the individuals’ treatments and adjust the treatment accordingly to the disease progress (Frank, 2014). Further, the drugs used in treatment of Huntington’s disease has the potential to cause significant side effects that can worsen symptoms of the disease (Frank, 2014). Therefore it is critically important for health care professionals to monitor the risk- benefit ratio effect the treatment has on an individual (Frank, 2014). Treatment available in New Zealand and further treatment developments worldwide Currently, there is no cure for Huntington disease, but medications, psychotherapy, speech and physical therapy can be implemented to help minimize symptoms while also allowing the individual to adapt to their condition (Frank, 2014). Medications to help treat movement disorders in New Zealand include Xenazine this medication helps to suppress chorea, but has possible side effects of aggravating depression (Frank, 2014). Also, the use of certain antipsychotic drugs such as haloperidol and clozapine can help alleviate choreic movements and further controlling hallucinations and violent outbursts, but the possible side effects can worsen dystonia and muscle rigidity (Frank, 2014). Due to the loss of frontal lobe functions as an effect of the disease, there needs to be increased psychiatric support for individuals with Huntington’s disease (Visser, 2010). This support can come from medications that support depression such as antidepressants which include fluoxetine, sertraline and esctislopram (Frank, 2014). This treatment of depression can further help to improve the symptoms of sleep disturbance, social withdrawal and lack of interest in general life (Frank, 2014). However, using antidepressants can include the side effects of insomnia, diarrhoea, nausea and sexual problems (Frank, 2014). Other medications to help individuals can be antipsychotic and mood stabilizing drugs which help to supress violent outbursts, highs and low mood swings, the common side effects of these medications include weight gain, tremor and gastrointestinal problems (Frank, 2014). Psychologists can provide talking therapy for an individual with Huntington disease, this therapy allows the individual to understanding the conditions effects, while further discussing the problems and feeling the individual has (Frank, 2014). Such problems the individual could be concerned about are talking, eating and swallowing this is because Huntington disease impairs the control of muscles of the mouth and throat (Frank, 2014). A speech therapist can address these issues and improve the individual’s ability of communication by implementation communication devices (Frank, 2014). Physical therapy is also an important part of Huntington disease as the exercises provide help improve strength, balance and coordination, which further results in the individual maintain mobility for as long as possible and minimizing the possible falls (Frank, 2014). Even though there is no treatment the research field is still dynamic there are a high number of on-going or recently completed studies in relation to Huntington disease (Frank, 2014). Also, in the USA there has been a break through approach called gene-silencing (Carrol, 2013). This approach relies on the fact that DNA is not directly copied from the protein, but is made up from a chemical RNA first; this RNA message is chopped up and thereby stops the cell making the Huntington protein (Carrol, 2013). Although this approach does not stop the individual from carrying the Huntington disease and, therefore the individual can still pass the gene on, this approach stops making the protein that attacks the brain cells (Carrol, 2013). Another breakthrough development happened in the UK this is of a tool called CRISPR (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats) that targets and cuts out specific small pieces of RNA (Carrol, 2013). This tool is used in the approach genome ed iting. This approach is different to gene silencing as it corrects the defect, which results in the individual not having the genetic defect and therefore produce babies without Huntington disease (Carrol, 2013).

Consumption and Everyday Life Essay example -- Culture Cultural Essays

Consumption and Everyday Life This interdisciplinary volume portrays the variety and complexity of consuming practices that are embedded in the context of everyday life. The contributors cover a broad range of cultural consuming patterns drawing on material as well as symbolic resources with case studies from different parts of the world. Studied practices include shopping, personal narratives, music and performance, the imagination of identities and places, media and audiences as well as domestic communication technologies. These cases counter both traditional images of a passive, powerless consumer and the postmodern glorification of consumers as "creative artists", but rather illustrate the varying balance between constraint and creativity, and the role of consumption within the cycle of production, regulation, representation and identity. In the introduction, Hugh Mackay explains what is understood under the term cultural consumption, and gives an interdisciplinary and historical overview of the most significant approaches to consumption, their accomplishments and weaknesses. He outlines what contribution this book has to offer to the study of consumption and everyday life, summarizes each chapter briefly, and discusses what they have in common, and in which respect they are differentiated from each other. In his chapter, Daniel Miller explains the concept of appropriation and illustrates it with his own fieldwork on English kitchen furniture in state-provided housings, U.S. American soap operas and Coca-Cola in Trinidad. He traces back anthropological approaches to the relationship between persons and objects and problematizes the strict distinction between "gift-societies" and "commodity-societies", and the p... ... They provide the reader with approachable empirical studies rather than abstract theorizing, and thus narrow the broad field and theoretical of consumption to possible local sites of study. The book is written in an accessible language and style, with key-concepts set off and explained in a very comprehensive way. Each chapter is followed by selected readings and includes questions and activities to the readers, thus creating the perquisites for an active reading (supporting their angle on consumption as active rather than passive). I recommend this very useful book to everyone interested in the cultural dimension of consumption. It might be an excellent introductory textbook, but be also of interest to advanced students and researchers across a range of disciplines including sociology, anthropology, media studies, communication, cultural studies, and economy.

Dilemmas in Assessment of Student Writing :: English Writing Teacher Student

Being a new teacher of English, I find the assessment of compositions to be a concept I question and struggle with on a regular basis. Having consulted several colleagues, mentors, administrators, and fellow graduate students, I have come to the conclusion that there is no easy answer to this tedious yet ever important question. While there are many inlets and outlets to this dilemma, for the sake of time I will touch on only three. While all three are very different in terms of concepts, rituals, and conducts, they all come together to one common goal - helping students express themselves in terms of writing. Subjectivity While assessment can give students, parents, and administrators a view of where a student stands in terms of achievement, one must always remember that the grade is subjective. There is no right or wrong answer in English, as there is in math or other quantitative areas of study. The basis of â€Å"a grade† depends upon a student’s ability to choose a course of thought and convey it accurately and convincingly in written form. The subjectivity falls in how the teacher interprets or responds to the ideas and supporting information. For example, during my first venture as a student teacher, I was given the task of grading â€Å"free choice† essays. The students were given free range of the subject matter, and were told to write an insightful and poignant essay on the topic of their choice. After grading the papers, my mentor sat with me and we discussed some of the grades I had given for several of the students’ papers. Upon glancing briefly at the comments I had made and the grades I had given, my mentor began asking direct questions as to why I would grade certain papers one way, but would assign a different grade to others that were quite similar. As she went on to read through other papers, she would agree with some of my grades, but strongly disagree with others. I found this interesting because, while we were both reading the same essays, we were focusing on different points or concepts, which shaded our perception of the piece as a whole. In retrospect, I believe that afternoon spent rereading essays with my mentor was one of the best teaching practices that I have come across. Once in a while, teachers needed to refocus their grading instincts by, in effect, orally defending their stance on grading policies.

Data mining

This is an accounting calculation, followed by the application of a threshold. However, predicting the profitability of a new customer would be data mining. Dividing the customers off company according to their profitability. Yes, this is a data mining task because it requires data analysis to determine who the costumers are that brings more business to the company. Computing the total sales of the company. No, this is not a data mining task because there Is not analysis involve, this information can be pull out of any booking program. Sorting a student database based on student ID numbers.No, this Is not a data milling activity because sorting by ID numbers doesn't Involved any data mining task. This is a simple database query Predicting the future stock price of a company using historical records. Yes. We would attempt to create a model that can predict the continuous value of the stock price. This is an example of the area of data mining known as predictive modeling. We could use regression for this modeling, although researchers in many fields have developed a wide variety of techniques for predicting time series. Monitoring the heart rate of a patient for abnormalities. Yes.We would build a model of the normal behavior of heart rate and raise an alarm when an unusual heart behavior occurred. This would involve the area of data mining known as anomaly detection. This could also be considered as a classification problem If we had examples of both normal and abnormal heart behavior. For each of the following, identify the relevant data mining task(s): The Boston Celtic would like to approximate how many points their next opponent will score against them. A military intelligence officer is interested in learning about the captives proportions of Sunnis and Shies in a particular strategic region. A NORA defense computer must decide immediately whether a blip on the radar is a flick of geese or an incoming nuclear missile. A political strategist is seeking the b est groups to canvass for donations in particular county. A homeland security official would like to determine whether a certain sequence of financial and residence moves implies a tendency to terrorist acts. A Wall Street analyst has been asked to find out the expected change in stock price for a set of companies with similar price/earnings ratios.Question 3 For each of the following meetings, explain which phase in the CRISP-DIM process is represented: Managers want to know by next week whether deployment will take place. Therefore, analysts meet to discuss how useful and accurate their model is. This is the Evaluation phase in the CRISP-DIM process. In the evaluation phase the data mining analysts determine if the model and technique used meets business objectives established in the first phase. The data mining project manager meets with data warehousing manager to discuss how the data will be collected. This is theData Understanding phase in the CRISP-DIM process. The data wareh ouse is identified as a resource during the Business Understanding phase; however the actual data collection takes place during the Data Understanding Phase. In this phase data is collected and accessed from the resources listed and identified in the Business Understanding phase. The data mining consultant meets with the vice president for marketing, who says that he would like to move forward with customer relationship management. The main objective of business is to review during the Business Understanding Phase.So, therefore after the meeting it seems the data mining consultant gained success in convincing UP of marketing to provide approval for performing data mining on the customer relationship management system. The data mining project manager meets with the production line supervisor to discuss implementation of changes and improvements. The discussion of implementation of changes and improvements in the project whether specific improvements or process changes are required to ensure that all important aspects of the business are accounted is performed under the Evaluation Phase.The meeting held with business objective to collect and cleanse the data to ensure the quality of data. The analysts meet to discuss whether the neural network or decision tree model should be applied Question 4 [10 points] Describe the possible negative effects of proceeding directly to mine data that has not been preprocessed. Before data mining algorithms can be used, a target data set must be assembled. As data mining can only uncover patterns actually present in the data, the target data set must be large enough to contain these patterns while imagining concise enough to be mined within an acceptable time limit.A common source for data is a data mart or data warehouse. Pre-processing is essential to analyze the multivariate data sets before data mining. The target set is then cleaned. Data. Question 5 [1 5 points] Which of the three methods for handling missing values do you prefer? Which method is the most conservative and probably the safest, meaning that it fabricates the least amount of data? What are some drawbacks to this method? Methods for replacing missing field values with: User defined constants Means or modesRandom draws from the distribution of the variable Question 6 Describe the differences between the training set, test set, and validation set. The training set is used to build the model. This contains a set of data that has fricasseed target and predictor variables. Typically a hold-out dataset or test set is used to evaluate how well the model does with data outside the training set. The test set contains the fricasseed results data but they are not used when the test set data is run through the model until the end, when the fricasseed data are compared against the model results.The model is adjusted to minimize error on the test set. Another hold-out dataset or validation set is used to evaluate the adjusted model in step #2 where, a gain, the validation set data is run against the adjusted model and results compared to the unused fricasseed data. The training set (seen data) to build the model (determine its parameters) and the test set (unseen data) to measure its performance (holding the parameters constant). Sometimes, we also need a validation set to tune the model (e. G. , for pruning a decision tree). The validation set can't be used for testing (as it's not unseen). Data mining This is an accounting calculation, followed by the application of a threshold. However, predicting the profitability of a new customer would be data mining. Dividing the customers off company according to their profitability. Yes, this is a data mining task because it requires data analysis to determine who the costumers are that brings more business to the company. Computing the total sales of the company. No, this is not a data mining task because there Is not analysis involve, this information can be pull out of any booking program. Sorting a student database based on student ID numbers.No, this Is not a data milling activity because sorting by ID numbers doesn't Involved any data mining task. This is a simple database query Predicting the future stock price of a company using historical records. Yes. We would attempt to create a model that can predict the continuous value of the stock price. This is an example of the area of data mining known as predictive modeling. We could use regression for this modeling, although researchers in many fields have developed a wide variety of techniques for predicting time series. Monitoring the heart rate of a patient for abnormalities. Yes.We would build a model of the normal behavior of heart rate and raise an alarm when an unusual heart behavior occurred. This would involve the area of data mining known as anomaly detection. This could also be considered as a classification problem If we had examples of both normal and abnormal heart behavior. For each of the following, identify the relevant data mining task(s): The Boston Celtic would like to approximate how many points their next opponent will score against them. A military intelligence officer is interested in learning about the captives proportions of Sunnis and Shies in a particular strategic region. A NORA defense computer must decide immediately whether a blip on the radar is a flick of geese or an incoming nuclear missile. A political strategist is seeking the b est groups to canvass for donations in particular county. A homeland security official would like to determine whether a certain sequence of financial and residence moves implies a tendency to terrorist acts. A Wall Street analyst has been asked to find out the expected change in stock price for a set of companies with similar price/earnings ratios.Question 3 For each of the following meetings, explain which phase in the CRISP-DIM process is represented: Managers want to know by next week whether deployment will take place. Therefore, analysts meet to discuss how useful and accurate their model is. This is the Evaluation phase in the CRISP-DIM process. In the evaluation phase the data mining analysts determine if the model and technique used meets business objectives established in the first phase. The data mining project manager meets with data warehousing manager to discuss how the data will be collected. This is theData Understanding phase in the CRISP-DIM process. The data wareh ouse is identified as a resource during the Business Understanding phase; however the actual data collection takes place during the Data Understanding Phase. In this phase data is collected and accessed from the resources listed and identified in the Business Understanding phase. The data mining consultant meets with the vice president for marketing, who says that he would like to move forward with customer relationship management. The main objective of business is to review during the Business Understanding Phase.So, therefore after the meeting it seems the data mining consultant gained success in convincing UP of marketing to provide approval for performing data mining on the customer relationship management system. The data mining project manager meets with the production line supervisor to discuss implementation of changes and improvements. The discussion of implementation of changes and improvements in the project whether specific improvements or process changes are required to ensure that all important aspects of the business are accounted is performed under the Evaluation Phase.The meeting held with business objective to collect and cleanse the data to ensure the quality of data. The analysts meet to discuss whether the neural network or decision tree model should be applied Question 4 [10 points] Describe the possible negative effects of proceeding directly to mine data that has not been preprocessed. Before data mining algorithms can be used, a target data set must be assembled. As data mining can only uncover patterns actually present in the data, the target data set must be large enough to contain these patterns while imagining concise enough to be mined within an acceptable time limit.A common source for data is a data mart or data warehouse. Pre-processing is essential to analyze the multivariate data sets before data mining. The target set is then cleaned. Data. Question 5 [1 5 points] Which of the three methods for handling missing values do you prefer? Which method is the most conservative and probably the safest, meaning that it fabricates the least amount of data? What are some drawbacks to this method? Methods for replacing missing field values with: User defined constants Means or modesRandom draws from the distribution of the variable Question 6 Describe the differences between the training set, test set, and validation set. The training set is used to build the model. This contains a set of data that has fricasseed target and predictor variables. Typically a hold-out dataset or test set is used to evaluate how well the model does with data outside the training set. The test set contains the fricasseed results data but they are not used when the test set data is run through the model until the end, when the fricasseed data are compared against the model results.The model is adjusted to minimize error on the test set. Another hold-out dataset or validation set is used to evaluate the adjusted model in step #2 where, a gain, the validation set data is run against the adjusted model and results compared to the unused fricasseed data. The training set (seen data) to build the model (determine its parameters) and the test set (unseen data) to measure its performance (holding the parameters constant). Sometimes, we also need a validation set to tune the model (e. G. , for pruning a decision tree). The validation set can't be used for testing (as it's not unseen). Data Mining Determine the benefits of data mining to the businesses when employing 1. Predictive analytics to understand the behavior of customers Predictive analytics is business intelligence technology that produces a predictive score for each customer or other organizational element. Assigning these predictive scores is the job of a predictive model, which has, in turn been trained over your data, learning from the experience of your organization. Predictive analytics optimizes marketing campaigns and website behavior to increase customer responses, conversions and clicks, and to decrease churn. Each customer's predictive score informs actions to be taken with that customer. 1. Associations discovery in products sold to customers The way in which companies interact with their customers has changed dramatically over the past few years. A customer's continuing business is no longer guaranteed. As a result, companies have found that they need to understand their customers better, and to quickly respond to their wants and needs. In addition, the time frame in which these responses need to be made has been shrinking. It is no longer possible to wait until the signs of customer dissatisfaction are obvious before action must be taken. To succeed, companies must be proactive and anticipate what a customer desires. For an example in the old days, the storekeepers would simply keep track of all of their customers in their heads, and would know what to do when a customer walked into the store. Today’ store associates face a much more complex situation, more customers, more products, more competitors, and less time to react means that understanding your customers is now much harder to do. A number of forces are working together to increase the complexity of customer relationships, such as compressed marketing cycles, increased marketing costs, and a stream of new product offers. There are many kinds of models, such as linear formulas and business rules. And, for each kind of model, there are all the weights or rules or other mechanics that determine precisely how the predictors are combined. In fact, there are so many choices, it is literally impossible for a person to try them all and find the best one. Predictive analytics is data mining technology that uses the company’s customer data to automatically build a predictive model specialized for the business. This process learns from the organization's collective experience by leveraging the existing logs of customer purchases, behavior and demographics. The wisdom gained is encoded as the predictive model itself. Predictive modeling software has computer science at its core, undertaking a mixture of number crunching, trial, and error. 2. Web mining to discover business intelligence from Web customers The fast business growth has made both business community and customers face a new situation. Due to intense competition on the one hand and the customer's option to prefer from a number of alternatives, the business community has realized the essential of intelligent marketing strategies and relationship management. Web servers record and accumulate data about user relations whenever requirements for resources are received. Analy zing the Web access logs can help understand the user behavior and the web structure. From the business and applications point of view, knowledge obtained from the web usage patterns could be directly applied to efficiently manage activities correlated to e-business, e-services and e-education. Accurate web usage information could help to attract new customers, retain current customers, improve cross marketing/sales, effectiveness of promotional campaigns, tracking leaving customers etc. The usage information can be exploited to improve the performance of Web servers by developing proper perfecting and caching strategies so as to decrease the server response time. User profiles could be built by combining users? navigation paths with other data features, such as page viewing time, hyperlink structure, and page content†, according to Sonal Tiwari. 3. Clustering to find related customer information Clustering is a typical unsupervised learning technique for grouping similar data points. A clustering algorithm assigns a large number of data points to a smaller number of groups such that data points in the same group share the same properties while, in different groups, they are dissimilar. Clustering has many applications, including part family formation for group technology, image segmentation, information retrieval, web pages grouping, market segmentation, and scientific and engineering analysis. Many clustering methods have been proposed and they can be broadly classified into four categories such as partitioning methods, hierarchical methods, density-based methods and grid-based methods. Customer clustering is the most important data mining methodologies used in marketing and customer relationship management (CRM). Customer clustering would use customer-purchase transaction data to track buying behavior and create strategic business initiatives. Companies want to keep high-profit, high-value, and low-risk customers. This cluster typically represents the 10 to 20 percent of customers who create 50 to 80 percent of a company's profits. A company would not want to lose these customers, and the strategic initiative for the segment is obviously retention. A low-profit, high-value, and low-risk customer segment is also an attractive one, and the obvious goal here would be to increase profitability for this segment. Cross-selling (selling new products) and up-selling (selling more of what customers currently buy) to this segment are the marketing initiatives of choice. Assess the reliability of the data mining algorithms. Decide if they can be trusted and predict the errors they are likely to produce. Most methods for validating a data-mining model do not answer business questions directly, but provide the metrics that can be used to guide a business or development decision. There is no comprehensive rule that can tell you when a model is good enough, or when you have enough data. Accuracy is a measure of how well the model correlates an outcome with the attributes in the data that has been provided. There are various measures of accuracy, but all measures of accuracy are dependent on the data that is used. In reality, values might be missing or approximate, or the data might have been changed by multiple processes. Particularly in the phase of exploration and development, you might decide to accept a certain amount of error in the data, especially if the data is fairly uniform in its characteristics. For example, a model that predicts sales for a particular store based on past sales can be strongly correlated and very accurate, even if that store consistently used the wrong accounting method. Therefore, measurements of accuracy must be balanced by assessments of reliability. Reliability assesses the way that a data-mining model performs on different data sets. A data-mining model is reliable if it generates the same type of predictions or finds the same general kinds of patterns egardless of the test data that is supplied. For example, the model that you would use to generate for the store that used the wrong accounting method would not generalize well to other stores, and therefore would not be reliable. Analyze privacy concerns raised by the collection of personal data for mining purposes. 1. Choose and describe three (3) concerns raised by consumers. Recent surveys on privacy show a great concern about the use of personal data for purposes other than the one for which data has been collected. The handling of misinformation can cause serious and long-term damage, so individuals should be able challenge the correctness of data about themselves, such as personal records. The last concern is granulated access to personal information, such as personal information about someone’s health when applying for a job. 2. Decide if each of these concerns is valid and explain your decision for each. These concerns are valid, the first concerned mentioned caused an extreme case to occurred in 1989, collecting over $16 million USD by selling the driver-license data from 19. million Californian residents, the Department of Motor Vehicles in California revised its data selling policy after Robert Brado used their services to obtain the address of actress Rebecca Schaeffer and later killed her in her apartment. While it is very unlikely that KDDM tools will reveal directly precise confidential data, the exploratory Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (KDDM), tools may correlate or dis close confidential, sensitive facts about individuals resulting in a significant reduction of possibilities. The second concern is valid due to incident happening in Washington; Cablevision fired an employee James Russell Wiggings, on the basis of information obtained from Equifax, Atlanta, about Wiggings' conviction for cocaine possession; the information was actually about James Ray Wiggings, and the case ended up in court. This illustrates a serious issue in defining property of the data containing personal records. The third issue is For example, employers are obliged to perform a background check when hiring a worker but it is widely accepted that information about diet and exercise habits should not affect hiring decisions. . Describe how each concern is being allayed. KDDM revitalizes some issues and possess new threats to privacy. Some of these can be directly attributed to the fact that this powerful technique may enable the correlation of separate data sets in other to significantly reduce the possible values of private information. Other can be more attributed to the interpretati on, application and actions taken from the inferences obtain with the tools. While this raises concerns, there is a body of knowledge in the field of statistical databases that could potentially be extended and adapted to develop new techniques to balance the rights to privacy and the needs for knowledge and analysis of large volumes of information. Some of these new privacy protection methods are emerging as the application of KDD tools moves to more controversial datasets. Provide at least three (3) examples where businesses have used predictive analysis to gain a competitive advantage and evaluate the effectiveness of each business’s strategy. The first advantage analysis helps when it comes to validity of a product by making a distinction between the positioning of a product and its ability to satisfy customer requirements. Another important attributes include ease of use, innovation, how well the product integrates with other technologies that customers need. The second advantage is the technology provides to customers. Even if a product is well designed, it must be able to help businesses achieve their business goals. Goals range from gaining insight about customers in order to be more competitive, to using the technology to increase revenue. A key attribute that is measured in this dimension is how well the product supports companies in meeting their objectives. The third advantage is the strength of the company’s strategy. It is not enough to simply have a good vision; a company must also have a well-designed road map that can support this vision. Vision attributes also include more tactical aspects of the company’s strategy such as a technology platform that can scale, well-articulated messaging, and positioning. A key component of this dimension is clarity: it must be clear what business problem the company is solving for which customer.ReferencesAlexander, D. (2012). Data Mining. Retrieved from: http://www.laits.utexas.edu/~anorman/BUS.FOR/course.mat/Alex/#8Josh, K. (2012). Analysis of Data Mining Algorithms. Retrieved from: http://www-users.cs.umn.edu/~desikan/research/dataminingoverview.html Exforsys. (2006). Execution for System: Connection between Data Mining and Customer Interaction. Retrieved from: http://www.exforsys.com/tutorials/data-mining/the-connection-between-data-mining-and-customer-interaction.html Frand, J. (1996). Data Mining: What is Data Mining? Retrieved from: http://www.anderson.ucla.edu/faculty/jason.frand/teacher/technologies/palace/index.htm Pupo, E. (2010). HIMSS News: Privacy and Security Concerns in Data Mining. Retrieved from: http://www.himss.org/ASP/ContentRedirector.asp?type=HIMSSNewsItem&ContentId=73526 Stein, J. (2011). Data Mining: How Companies Now Know Everything About You. Retrieved from: http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,2058205,00.html#ixzz25MwYNhuh